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Read a Word From a File and Store It in a Dynamically Sized Array in C

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C dynamic memory allotment refers to performing transmission memory management for dynamic retention allocation in the C programming linguistic communication via a group of functions in the C standard library, namely malloc, realloc, calloc and complimentary.[1] [2] [three]

The C++ programming language includes these functions; withal, the operators new and delete provide like functionality and are recommended by that language's authors.[4] Still, there are several situations in which using new/delete is not applicative, such as garbage collection code or functioning-sensitive lawmaking, and a combination of malloc and placementnew may be required instead of the higher-level new operator.

Many different implementations of the actual memory allocation mechanism, used past malloc, are available. Their performance varies in both execution fourth dimension and required memory.

Rationale [edit]

The C programming language manages retention statically, automatically, or dynamically. Static-duration variables are allocated in principal memory, usually forth with the executable code of the program, and persist for the lifetime of the programme; automated-duration variables are allocated on the stack and come up and go equally functions are called and render. For static-duration and automatic-elapsing variables, the size of the allotment must be compile-time abiding (except for the case of variable-length automatic arrays[v]). If the required size is not known until run-time (for example, if data of capricious size is being read from the user or from a disk file), then using fixed-size data objects is inadequate.

The lifetime of allocated memory tin can also crusade business. Neither static- nor automatic-duration retention is acceptable for all situations. Automatic-allocated data cannot persist across multiple function calls, while static data persists for the life of the programme whether it is needed or non. In many situations the programmer requires greater flexibility in managing the lifetime of allocated retention.

These limitations are avoided by using dynamic retentiveness allocation, in which memory is more than explicitly (just more flexibly) managed, typically by allocating it from the free store (informally chosen the "heap"), an area of memory structured for this purpose. In C, the library function malloc is used to allocate a block of memory on the heap. The program accesses this block of memory via a pointer that malloc returns. When the retentivity is no longer needed, the arrow is passed to complimentary which deallocates the retentiveness and then that it can exist used for other purposes.

The original description of C indicated that calloc and cfree were in the standard library, just not malloc. Code for a simple model implementation of a storage manager for Unix was given with alloc and gratuitous as the user interface functions, and using the sbrk organisation call to asking retentiveness from the operating system.[6] The sixth Edition Unix documentation gives alloc and gratis as the low-level memory allocation functions.[7] The malloc and free routines in their modern form are completely described in the 7th Edition Unix manual.[viii] [9]

Some platforms provide library or intrinsic office calls which permit run-time dynamic allocation from the C stack rather than the heap (due east.chiliad. alloca() [10]). This memory is automatically freed when the calling function ends.

Overview of functions [edit]

The C dynamic retentiveness allocation functions are divers in stdlib.h header (cstdlib header in C++).[i]

Function Clarification
malloc allocates the specified number of bytes
realloc increases or decreases the size of the specified cake of retentivity, moving it if necessary
calloc allocates the specified number of bytes and initializes them to zero
free releases the specified block of memory back to the arrangement

Differences betwixt malloc() and calloc() [edit]

  • malloc() takes a single argument (the amount of retentiveness to allocate in bytes), while calloc() needs two arguments (the number of variables to allocate in memory, and the size in bytes of a single variable).
  • malloc() does not initialize the retentiveness allocated, while calloc() guarantees that all bytes of the allocated retentiveness block take been initialized to 0.
  • On some operating systems, calloc() tin can exist implemented past initially pointing all pages of the allocated retentiveness's virtual addresses to a read-but page of all 0s, and merely allocating read-write physical pages when the virtual addresses are written to, a method chosen copy-on-write.

Usage case [edit]

Creating an assortment of x integers with automatic scope is straightforward in C:

However, the size of the array is fixed at compile time. If one wishes to classify a like array dynamically, the post-obit code tin be used: 

                        int                                    *            array                                    =                                    malloc            (            ten                                    *                                    sizeof            (            int            ));

This computes the number of bytes that ten integers occupy in retention, then requests that many bytes from malloc and assigns the result to a arrow named array (due to C syntax, pointers and arrays can exist used interchangeably in some situations).

Because malloc might not exist able to service the request, it might return a null arrow and it is adept programming practice to bank check for this: 

                        int                                    *            array                                    =                                    malloc            (            10                                    *                                    sizeof            (            int            ));                        if                                    (            array                                    ==                                    NULL            )                                    {                                                fprintf            (            stderr            ,                                    "malloc failed            \n            "            );                                                return                                    -1            ;                        }

When the program no longer needs the dynamic array, information technology must eventually call costless to return the memory it occupies to the free store:

The memory set aside by malloc is not initialized and may contain cruft: the remnants of previously used and discarded information. After allocation with malloc, elements of the array are uninitialized variables. The command calloc volition return an allotment that has already been cleared: 

                        int                                    *            array                                    =                                    calloc            (            10            ,                                    sizeof            (            int            ));

With realloc we tin resize the amount of memory a pointer points to. For case, if we have a arrow interim equally an assortment of size north {\displaystyle northward} and nosotros want to change it to an array of size g {\displaystyle grand} , nosotros tin can utilise realloc. 

                        int                                    *            arr                                    =                                    malloc            (            2                                    *                                    sizeof            (            int            ));                        arr            [            0            ]                                    =                                    ane            ;                        arr            [            i            ]                                    =                                    two            ;                        arr                                    =                                    realloc            (            arr            ,                                    3                                    *                                    sizeof            (            int            ));                        arr            [            two            ]                                    =                                    3            ;

Notation that realloc must be causeless to have changed the base of operations address of the block (i.e. if it has failed to extend the size of the original block, and has therefore allocated a new larger block elsewhere and copied the old contents into it). Therefore, any pointers to addresses inside the original block are also no longer valid.

Type prophylactic [edit]

malloc returns a void pointer (void *), which indicates that information technology is a arrow to a region of unknown information blazon. The utilize of casting is required in C++ due to the potent type organization, whereas this is not the instance in C. I may "cast" (see type conversion) this pointer to a specific type: 

                        int                                    *            ptr            ,                                    *            ptr2            ;                        ptr                                    =                                    malloc            (            10                                    *                                    sizeof            (            *            ptr            ));                                    /* without a cast */                        ptr2                                    =                                    (            int                                    *            )            malloc            (            10                                    *                                    sizeof            (            *            ptr            ));                                    /* with a cast */

There are advantages and disadvantages to performing such a bandage.

Advantages to casting [edit]

  • Including the cast may allow a C programme or function to compile equally C++.
  • The cast allows for pre-1989 versions of malloc that originally returned a char *.[xi]
  • Casting tin can assistance the programmer identify inconsistencies in type sizing should the destination pointer blazon change, specially if the arrow is declared far from the malloc() call (although modern compilers and static analysers can warn on such behaviour without requiring the cast[12]).

Disadvantages to casting [edit]

  • Under the C standard, the cast is redundant.
  • Adding the cast may mask failure to include the header stdlib.h, in which the office prototype for malloc is institute.[11] [thirteen] In the absence of a prototype for malloc, the C90 standard requires that the C compiler assume malloc returns an int. If there is no bandage, C90 requires a diagnostic when this integer is assigned to the pointer; still, with the cast, this diagnostic would non exist produced, hiding a bug. On certain architectures and data models (such every bit LP64 on 64-fleck systems, where long and pointers are 64-bit and int is 32-bit), this error tin actually event in undefined behaviour, as the implicitly declared malloc returns a 32-bit value whereas the actually divers function returns a 64-bit value. Depending on calling conventions and memory layout, this may upshot in stack corking. This event is less probable to get unnoticed in modern compilers, as C99 does not permit implicit declarations, and then the compiler must produce a diagnostic even if it does assume int render.
  • If the type of the pointer is inverse at its declaration, one may as well demand to change all lines where malloc is called and cast.

Common errors [edit]

The improper use of dynamic memory allocation can oft exist a source of bugs. These can include security bugs or program crashes, almost oftentimes due to segmentation faults.

Most common errors are as follows:[fourteen]

Non checking for allocation failures
Memory allocation is not guaranteed to succeed, and may instead return a zilch pointer. Using the returned value, without checking if the resource allotment is successful, invokes undefined behavior. This ordinarily leads to crash (due to the resulting sectionalization fault on the null pointer dereference), merely in that location is no guarantee that a crash will happen so relying on that tin can likewise lead to problems.
Memory leaks
Failure to deallocate memory using free leads to buildup of non-reusable memory, which is no longer used by the program. This wastes memory resource and tin can lead to allocation failures when these resources are exhausted.
Logical errors
All allocations must follow the aforementioned pattern: allocation using malloc, usage to store data, deallocation using free. Failures to adhere to this pattern, such equally memory usage after a telephone call to free (dangling pointer) or before a call to malloc (wild pointer), calling free twice ("double gratuitous"), etc., usually causes a sectionalisation fault and results in a crash of the plan. These errors tin be transient and hard to debug – for example, freed retention is usually not immediately reclaimed past the OS, and thus dangling pointers may persist for a while and announced to work.

In addition, as an interface that precedes ANSI C standardization, malloc and its associated functions have behaviors that were intentionally left to the implementation to define for themselves. Ane of them is the cipher-length allocation, which is more of a problem with realloc since it is more common to resize to zero.[fifteen] Although both POSIX and the Single Unix Specification require proper handling of 0-size allocations by either returning NULL or something else that tin can be safely freed,[16] not all platforms are required to abide past these rules. Among the many double-free errors that it has led to, the 2019 WhatsApp RCE was especially prominent.[17] A fashion to wrap these functions to make them safer is by simply checking for 0-size allocations and turning them into those of size 1. (Returning Nix has its ain problems: it otherwise indicates an out-of-memory failure. In the example of realloc it would have signaled that the original retentiveness was not moved and freed, which again is not the case for size 0, leading to the double-free.)[18]

Implementations [edit]

The implementation of memory management depends profoundly upon operating system and compages. Some operating systems supply an allocator for malloc, while others supply functions to command certain regions of data. The same dynamic memory allocator is often used to implement both malloc and the operator new in C++.[xix]

Heap-based [edit]

Implementation of the allocator is ordinarily washed using the heap, or data segment. The allocator volition ordinarily expand and contract the heap to fulfill allocation requests.

The heap method suffers from a few inherent flaws, stemming entirely from fragmentation. Like any method of memory allocation, the heap will become fragmented; that is, at that place will be sections of used and unused memory in the allocated space on the heap. A practiced allocator volition attempt to find an unused area of already allocated memory to use before resorting to expanding the heap. The major trouble with this method is that the heap has just two pregnant attributes: base of operations, or the beginning of the heap in virtual retentivity infinite; and length, or its size. The heap requires enough organization retentiveness to fill up its entire length, and its base can never modify. Thus, any large areas of unused retention are wasted. The heap tin can get "stuck" in this position if a small used segment exists at the end of the heap, which could waste product any amount of address space. On lazy memory resource allotment schemes, such as those oftentimes found in the Linux operating system, a big heap does not necessarily reserve the equivalent system memory; information technology will only do and then at the outset write time (reads of non-mapped memory pages return zip). The granularity of this depends on page size.

dlmalloc and ptmalloc [edit]

Doug Lea has developed the public domain dlmalloc ("Doug Lea'south Malloc") as a general-purpose allocator, starting in 1987. The GNU C library (glibc) is derived from Wolfram Gloger'southward ptmalloc ("pthreads malloc"), a fork of dlmalloc with threading-related improvements.[20] [21] [22] As of November 2019, the latest version of dlmalloc is version two.8.6 from August 2012.[23]

dlmalloc is a boundary tag allocator. Memory on the heap is allocated as "chunks", an viii-byte aligned data construction which contains a header, and usable retentiveness. Allocated memory contains an 8- or 16-byte overhead for the size of the chunk and usage flags (similar to a dope vector). Unallocated chunks too store pointers to other complimentary chunks in the usable space area, making the minimum clamper size 16 bytes on 32-bit systems and 24/32 (depends on alignment) bytes on 64-bit systems.[21] [23] : 2.8.half dozen, Minimum allocated size

Unallocated memory is grouped into "bins" of similar sizes, implemented by using a double-linked list of chunks (with pointers stored in the unallocated space inside the clamper). Bins are sorted by size into three classes:[21] [23] : Overlaid information structures

  • For requests below 256 bytes (a "smallbin" asking), a simple ii ability best fit allocator is used. If at that place are no free blocks in that bin, a block from the next highest bin is split in 2.
  • For requests of 256 bytes or above simply below the mmap threshold, dlmalloc since v2.viii.0 use an in-place bitwise trie algorithm ("treebin"). If there is no free infinite left to satisfy the request, dlmalloc tries to increase the size of the heap, normally via the brk system call. This feature was introduced manner afterwards ptmalloc was created (from v2.seven.x), and every bit a result is not a office of glibc, which inherits the quondam best-fit allocator.
  • For requests above the mmap threshold (a "largebin" request), the memory is ever allocated using the mmap organization call. The threshold is usually 256 KB.[24] The mmap method averts bug with huge buffers trapping a small allocation at the finish after their expiration, but e'er allocates an entire page of memory, which on many architectures is 4096 bytes in size.[25]

Game programmer Adrian Stone argues that dlmalloc, equally a boundary-tag allocator, is unfriendly for panel systems that have virtual memory but practice not have demand paging. This is because its puddle-shrinking and growing callbacks (sysmalloc/systrim) cannot exist used to allocate and commit private pages of virtual memory. In the absence of demand paging, fragmentation becomes a greater concern.[26]

FreeBSD's and NetBSD's jemalloc [edit]

Since FreeBSD 7.0 and NetBSD five.0, the old malloc implementation (phkmalloc) was replaced by jemalloc, written by Jason Evans. The main reason for this was a lack of scalability of phkmalloc in terms of multithreading. In order to avoid lock contention, jemalloc uses split up "arenas" for each CPU. Experiments measuring number of allocations per 2d in multithreading awarding have shown that this makes it scale linearly with the number of threads, while for both phkmalloc and dlmalloc performance was inversely proportional to the number of threads.[27]

OpenBSD'south malloc [edit]

OpenBSD'due south implementation of the malloc role makes use of mmap. For requests greater in size than 1 page, the unabridged resource allotment is retrieved using mmap; smaller sizes are assigned from retention pools maintained by malloc within a number of "bucket pages," as well allocated with mmap.[28] [ better source needed ] On a phone call to costless, retention is released and unmapped from the process address space using munmap. This system is designed to improve security past taking advantage of the address space layout randomization and gap page features implemented as function of OpenBSD's mmap organization call, and to observe use-later-free bugs—as a large retentivity resource allotment is completely unmapped after it is freed, farther employ causes a partition error and termination of the program.

Hoard malloc [edit]

Hoard is an allocator whose goal is scalable memory allotment performance. Like OpenBSD's allocator, Hoard uses mmap exclusively, just manages memory in chunks of 64 kilobytes called superblocks. Hoard's heap is logically divided into a single global heap and a number of per-processor heaps. In improver, there is a thread-local cache that can concord a limited number of superblocks. By allocating only from superblocks on the local per-thread or per-processor heap, and moving mostly-empty superblocks to the global heap so they can be reused by other processors, Hoard keeps fragmentation low while achieving nigh linear scalability with the number of threads.[29]

mimalloc [edit]

An open-source compact general-purpose memory allocator from Microsoft Inquiry with focus on performance.[30] The library is about 11,000 lines of code.

Thread-caching malloc (tcmalloc) [edit]

Every thread has a thread-local storage for minor allocations. For large allocations mmap or sbrk can be used. TCMalloc, a malloc developed past Google,[31] has garbage-drove for local storage of dead threads. The TCMalloc is considered to be more than twice as fast equally glibc's ptmalloc for multithreaded programs.[32] [33]

DFWMalloc [edit]

A highly-configurable malloc library employing lock-gratis functionality, DFWMalloc is designed for enterprise environments to be robust against fragmentation and allow run-time inspection of the allocation space.

In-kernel [edit]

Operating system kernels need to classify memory just as awarding programs do. The implementation of malloc within a kernel frequently differs significantly from the implementations used by C libraries, yet. For case, retentiveness buffers might demand to conform to special restrictions imposed by DMA, or the retentivity allocation office might be called from interrupt context.[34] This necessitates a malloc implementation tightly integrated with the virtual memory subsystem of the operating system kernel.

Overriding malloc [edit]

Because malloc and its relatives can have a strong impact on the functioning of a program, it is not uncommon to override the functions for a specific application past custom implementations that are optimized for application's allocation patterns. The C standard provides no way of doing this, but operating systems have found diverse ways to practice this by exploiting dynamic linking. One way is to simply link in a unlike library to override the symbols. Some other, employed by Unix Arrangement Five.iii, is to make malloc and free function pointers that an application can reset to custom functions.[35]

Allotment size limits [edit]

The largest possible memory block malloc can classify depends on the host system, particularly the size of physical retentivity and the operating arrangement implementation.

Theoretically, the largest number should be the maximum value that can be held in a size_t blazon, which is an implementation-dependent unsigned integer representing the size of an area of retention. In the C99 standard and subsequently, it is available every bit the SIZE_MAX constant from <stdint.h>. Although not guaranteed by ISO C, it is usually ii^(CHAR_BIT * sizeof(size_t)) - ane.

On glibc systems, the largest possible retentiveness cake malloc can allocate is only half this size, namely ii^(CHAR_BIT * sizeof(ptrdiff_t) - 1) - 1.[36]

Extensions and alternatives [edit]

The C library implementations shipping with diverse operating systems and compilers may come with alternatives and extensions to the standard malloc interface. Notable among these is:

  • alloca, which allocates a requested number of bytes on the phone call stack. No corresponding deallocation office exists, as typically the retentiveness is deallocated as before long equally the calling function returns. alloca was nowadays on Unix systems every bit early every bit 32/5 (1978), just its apply can be problematic in some (due east.chiliad., embedded) contexts.[37] While supported by many compilers, it is not function of the ANSI-C standard and therefore may non ever be portable. It may besides crusade pocket-size performance problems: it leads to variable-size stack frames, so that both stack and frame pointers need to be managed (with fixed-size stack frames, one of these is redundant).[38] Larger allocations may also increase the adventure of undefined beliefs due to a stack overflow.[39] C99 offered variable-length arrays as an alternative stack allocation machinery – all the same, this feature was relegated to optional in the subsequently C11 standard.
  • POSIX defines a function posix_memalign that allocates retentivity with caller-specified alignment. Its allocations are deallocated with free,[40] then the implementation usually needs to exist a part of the malloc library.

Run into besides [edit]

  • Buffer overflow
  • Memory debugger
  • Memory protection
  • Folio size
  • Variable-length array

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b ISO/IEC 9899:1999 specification (PDF). p. 313, § seven.20.3 "Memory management functions".
  2. ^ Godse, Atul P.; Godse, Deepali A. (2008). Advanced C Programming. p. 6-28: Technical Publications. p. 400. ISBN978-81-8431-496-0. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  3. ^ Superlative, Steve. "Chapter 11: Memory Allocation". C Programming Notes . Retrieved 2020-07-11 .
  4. ^ Stroustrup, Bjarne (2008). Programming: Principles and Do Using C++. 1009, §27.4 Free shop: Addison Wesley. p. 1236. ISBN978-0-321-54372-1. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  5. ^ "gcc manual". gnu.org. Retrieved 2008-12-14 .
  6. ^ Brian W. Kernighan, Dennis M. Ritchie, The C Programming Language, Prentice-Hall, 1978; Section 7.nine (page 156) describes calloc and cfree, and Department 8.7 (page 173) describes an implementation for alloc and gratis.
  7. ^ alloc(3)  – Version 6 Unix Developer'southward Transmission
  8. ^ malloc(3)  – Version 7 Unix Programmer's Manual
  9. ^ Anonymous, Unix Programmer's Transmission, Vol. 1, Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1983 (copyright held by Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1983, 1979); The human page for malloc etc. is given on page 275.
  10. ^ alloca(3)  – FreeBSD Library Functions Transmission
  11. ^ a b "Casting malloc". Cprogramming.com. Retrieved 2007-03-09 .
  12. ^ "clang: lib/StaticAnalyzer/Checkers/MallocSizeofChecker.cpp Source File". clang.llvm.org . Retrieved 2018-04-01 .
  13. ^ "comp.lang.c FAQ list · Question 7.7b". C-FAQ. Retrieved 2007-03-09 .
  14. ^ Reek, Kenneth (1997-08-04). Pointers on C (1 ed.). Pearson. ISBN9780673999863.
  15. ^ "MEM04-C. Beware of zero-length allocations - SEI CERT C Coding Standard - Confluence". wiki.sei.cmu.edu.
  16. ^ "POSIX.1-2017: malloc". pubs.opengroup.org . Retrieved 2019-xi-29 .
  17. ^ Awakened (2019-10-02). "How a double-free bug in WhatsApp turns to RCE". Retrieved 2019-11-29 .
  18. ^ Felker, Rich (2019-x-03). "Wow. The WhatsApp RCE was the wrong behavior for realloc(p,0) and so many implementations insist on.https://twitter.com/ottom6k/status/1179623539726524417 …". Twitter . Retrieved 2019-11-29 .
  19. ^ Alexandrescu, Andrei (2001). Mod C++ Design: Generic Programming and Design Patterns Applied. Addison-Wesley. p. 78.
  20. ^ "Wolfram Gloger'south malloc homepage". malloc.de . Retrieved 2018-04-01 .
  21. ^ a b c Kaempf, Michel (2001). "Vudo malloc tricks". Phrack (57): viii. Archived from the original on 2009-01-22. Retrieved 2009-04-29 .
  22. ^ "Glibc: Malloc Internals". sourceware.org Trac . Retrieved 2019-12-01 .
  23. ^ a b c Lee, Doug. "A Memory Allocator". Retrieved 2019-12-01 . HTTP for Source Code
  24. ^ "Malloc Tunable Parameters". GNU. Retrieved 2009-05-02 .
  25. ^ Sanderson, Bruce (2004-12-12). "RAM, Virtual Memory, Pagefile and all that stuff". Microsoft Help and Support.
  26. ^ Stone, Adrian. "The Pigsty That dlmalloc Tin't Fill". Game Angst . Retrieved 2019-12-01 .
  27. ^ Evans, Jason (2006-04-16). "A Scalable Concurrent malloc(3) Implementation for FreeBSD" (PDF) . Retrieved 2012-03-18 .
  28. ^ "libc/stdlib/malloc.c". BSD Cantankerous Reference, OpenBSD src/lib/.
  29. ^ Berger, E. D.; McKinley, Thousand. S.; Blumofe, R. D.; Wilson, P. R. (Nov 2000). Hoard: A Scalable Retentiveness Allocator for Multithreaded Applications (PDF). ASPLOS-IX. Proceedings of the ninth international conference on Architectural support for programming languages and operating systems. pp. 117–128. CiteSeerXx.1.i.1.4174. doi:10.1145/378993.379232. ISBN1-58113-317-0.
  30. ^ Microsoft releases optimized malloc() as open source - Slashdot
  31. ^ TCMalloc homepage
  32. ^ Ghemawat, Sanjay; Menage, Paul; TCMalloc : Thread-Caching Malloc
  33. ^ Callaghan, Mark (2009-01-xviii). "High Availability MySQL: Double sysbench throughput with TCMalloc". Mysqlha.blogspot.com . Retrieved 2011-09-18 .
  34. ^ "kmalloc()/kfree() include/linux/slab.h". People.netfilter.org . Retrieved 2011-09-xviii .
  35. ^ Levine, John R. (2000) [October 1999]. "Chapter nine: Shared libraries". Linkers and Loaders. The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Software Engineering and Programming (ane ed.). San Francisco, USA: Morgan Kaufmann. ISBNone-55860-496-0. OCLC 42413382. Archived from the original on 2012-12-05. Retrieved 2020-01-12 . Code: [ane][ii] Errata: [iii]
  36. ^ "malloc: make malloc neglect with requests larger than PTRDIFF_MAX". Sourceware Bugzilla. 2019-04-18. Retrieved 2020-07-xxx .
  37. ^ "Why is the utilise of alloca() not considered good practice?". stackoverflow.com . Retrieved 2016-01-05 .
  38. ^ Amarasinghe, Saman; Leiserson, Charles (2010). "six.172 Operation Engineering of Software Systems, Lecture 10". MIT OpenCourseWare. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 2015-06-22. Retrieved 2015-01-27 .
  39. ^ "alloca(3) - Linux manual folio". man7.org . Retrieved 2016-01-05 .
  40. ^ posix_memalign  – System Interfaces Reference, The Single UNIX Specification, Issue 7 from The Open up Grouping

External links [edit]

  • Definition of malloc in IEEE Std 1003.1 standard
  • Lea, Doug; The design of the basis of the glibc allocator
  • Gloger, Wolfram; The ptmalloc homepage
  • Berger, Emery; The Hoard homepage
  • Douglas, Niall; The nedmalloc homepage
  • Evans, Jason; The jemalloc homepage
  • Simple Memory Allocation Algorithms on OSDEV Community
  • Michael, Maged M.; Scalable Lock-Free Dynamic Memory Resource allotment
  • Bartlett, Jonathan; Within memory management – The choices, tradeoffs, and implementations of dynamic resource allotment
  • Memory Reduction (GNOME) wiki page with much information well-nigh fixing malloc
  • C99 standard draft, including TC1/TC2/TC3
  • Some useful references nigh C
  • ISO/IEC 9899 – Programming languages – C
  • Understanding glibc malloc

Read a Word From a File and Store It in a Dynamically Sized Array in C

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_dynamic_memory_allocation

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